My concept of leadership and how community service eperiences have Essay

My concept of leadership and how community service eperiences have impacted my life - Essay Example My first leadership experience took place when I was a child. I was the oldest of four children and as the first child I had to take care of my siblings, make sure that they went to school, prepared their homework and of course resolved their conflicts. At the same time, I had to make them respect and trust me. So, I discovered and did instinctively everything that a leader does i.e. being responsible for the group (my siblings), motivate them (to go to school and prepare their homework), influence and control them. Later on, following a strong internal lead I became a member of the National Charity League. Now, I am a Vice President of the League and in general I have accomplished 200 hours of community service. The mission of National Charity League is  to foster mother-daughter relationships in a philanthropic organization committed to community service, leadership development and cultural experiences.(http://www.nationalcharityleague.org/). The National Charity League is based mostly on volunteers i.e. people join without expecting any financial returns, they just do it because they feel they want to offer their services to other people. This makes the work of the leader easy and difficult at the same time. It is easy because people share the vision of the leader and have common goals but on the other hand it is difficult because they are not employees so it is difficult to coordinate and â€Å"oblige† them to act professionally. So,in this case the leader has to adapt his/her leadership style accordingly. This means that the leader in this case cannot be authoritative or coercive since the human factor comes first. S/he cannot be democratic since this is a style that a leader can implement when s/he is not sure about the direction that needs to be taken. The style of leadership that is most suitable for community service is the affiliative. Here, the leader focuses on strong emotional relations and then he

Plato’s Theory of Knowledge, A Guide to Reaching Higher Grounds Essay Example for Free

Plato’s Theory of Knowledge, A Guide to Reaching Higher Grounds Essay The human knowledge may be regarded as having a two parts: One that he sees hears and touches, on the other he organizes mind s on what he learns through the senses. Philosophers have given considerable attentions to questions about the resources of knowledge. Some philosophers think that that the particular thing seen, heard and touches are more important. They believe that general ideas are formed from the examination of the particular facts. A philosopher who feels that the knowledge is acquired in this way is called empiricist. The view of the knowledge can be attained only through the sense of experience. According to them the real knowledge is based on what our sight, hearing smell and other senses tell us it is really out there and not what people makes up in their heads. Other philosopher thinks it is more important to find a general law according to which particular facts can be understood or judge. This method advocates rationalist. A newer school pragmatism, believe that the value in use is the real test of the truth and meaning and truth of an idea are tested by the practical consequences. These are some of the groups that search about the roots of the theory of knowledge. When a person wants to be enlightened you must know what the light within us is. This light will guide us in every step of our lives. It is a process on what is greater than life, what is greater in the physical things that we see. It is the moment when we begin to know something that is greater than, which is also within ourselves. According to the Augustinian Theory of knowledge, there are two objectives to be considered. One is to show how knowledge of all kinds is achieved and how therefore true reality maybe discovered. The second is to provide the groundwork for the reform of the cultural education to ensure the proper development of the people through teaching knowledge. Inner awakening is that you follow your ego, but after you realize and enlightened, we follow god’s will. We as a person must know and search ways to be enlightened. Enlightenment is the aim of any person. But after you get this enlightened don’t fear that you will loose everything. You must enjoy things more passionate but you know when and how and do not abuse your power of enjoyment like you did before enlighten. The theory of knowledge gives us a guide on how human reach the higher level of enlightenment. It gives us the one by one step and details on how knowledge is acquire. Plato a great philosopher considers some of the details about what is the nature of knowledge and the way it was obtained. In the traditional analysis of knowledge Plato’s theory of knowledge divides into three approaches: (1) the allegory of â€Å"the cave† (2) the metaphor of the â€Å"divide line† (3) and the doctrines â€Å"the forms†. The cave tells us that most of the people who are living in the cave, in the dark has converted to salvation because of the knowledge that they acquire. The â€Å"divided line† visualizes the levels of knowledge in a more systematic way. Plato states that there are four stages of the knowledge development. (1) Imagining, which tells us that the looks or appearance seen as true reality. For example an art, which tells us that what we have seen is not necessarily what, you get. (2) Belief, Plato gives us the idea of seeing the reality does not always believe. We have the strong conviction of what we see but not with absolute certainty. (3) Thinking, it is believe the visible world and move into intelligible world which it stands for the power of mind. Plato wants to see all things as they really are so we can see that all things are interconnected. (4) The development stage of the knowledge due to thinking. The third Approach is â€Å"the Forms† are the highest levels of reality. The forms are called ideas. These are independent existing entities whose existence and nature are graspable only by the mind, even though they are not depend on being so grasped in order to exist A person is in then stage of immaturity, when theory of knowledge takes place he will undergo such different stages like at first he will see what is the source and problem of its immaturity understanding what is immaturity will mean a process that under go such enlightenment. After understanding and knowing the problem he will go to the next stage which is by visualizing the level of knowledge of being immature. He can have a research or he can conduct a qouestion and answer so that he can get some opinion so that it can help a lot in defining the problem of being immature. For instance, what distinguishes real knowledge from mere opinion? The real knowledge is based on the logic, the laws and the methods of reason that we use to understand the universe (Velasquez, 1999) By getting such knowledge and analyzing of what category or level he can create a new solution in order of getting out of being immature.Thingking of the possible solution and ideas is the last satge of getting out of being immature.This process or step of solving ones problem is an example of theory of knowledge which can be apply to enlightenment.In any of the different stages they are interconnected to one another so that it can create a good solution which enlightens on a person. There is a given change of such enlightenment. For Parmenides, Change is the confusion of the appearance (motion) with reality (permanence) and therefore the change is simply an illusion. Reality is the basis of truth (knowledge) where as changes produces only opinion (lack of knowledge). Although the senses tells us that the things appear to change and therefore things do change, our reason can distinguish the truth from that which appear to be true. When reasons say reality must be single permanent substances, then there can be no change. (Hankinson, 1998) Plato’s theory of knowledge leads us down many roads, but we see the same theme through out: the light to dark; ignorant to educate: reality to really real.The theory of knowledge imparts us that in every circumstances in life there is a solution. In every situation that we have there is an appropriate answer. Having a knowledge or education gives us the true meaning of reality and real.That is when enlightenment takes place. When we have already the knowledge and reasons we know now how to handle and solve on any situation that we have.   Enlightenment is one of important part in our life to have a sense of direction. If we can apply the the different stages of theory of knowledge and integrate it   to its process of enl;ightenment there is a good way that humanities can have the truth , the reality, and the essence of having a knowledge.Believing to the knowledge that we have and through by the grace we can struggle and survive in any situation that we have. Velasquez, Manuel â€Å"Philosophy: A text with readings†. New York: Wadsworth publishing company, 1999. Hankinson, RJ.† Cause and Explanation in Ancient Greek Thought†. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998. â€Å"Human Knowledge and Human Nature: A new introduction to an Ancient Debate Oxford University Press, 1992   ISBN 0-19-875101-X ISBN 0-19-875102-8 (pbk.) http://www.philosophy.umd.edu/Faculty/pcarruthers/HKHN-Conclusion.htm â€Å"Augustinian Knowledge Of theory† http://www.users.bigpond.com/seckington/Augustinian%20Knowledge.htm What is Enlightenment ? (Quest-ce que les Lumià ¨res ?), in Rabinow (P.), à ©d., The Foucault Reader, New York, Pantheon Books, 1984, pp. 32-50. http://foucault.info/documents/whatIsEnlightenment/foucault.whatIsEnlightenment.en.html

How Evil is Portrayed in Lord of the Flies by George Orwell Essay examp

How Evil is Portrayed in Lord of the Flies by George Orwell William Golding uses allegory in Lord of the Flies to portray the evil that is in people. An allegory is a story with an underlying meaning as well as a literal one. William Golding uses allegory on two levels in Lord of the Flies, one relating to World War Two that had just taken place when the book was written and another relating to Jesus Christ and the Garden of Eden. An important aspect of the novel is the time in which it was written, due to the Second World War ending. This means that Golding would have experienced and seen the cruelty and bitterness of man. William Golding had a theory as to why people do evil things. This was known as the 'original sin' or 'inner evil'. He believed that when you are born you have a certain amount of good and a certain amount of evil inside you. There are many characters that are protrayed as evil, one of which is Roger. Roger is pure evil, and only in the last four chapters does the reader discover this. Roger seems to be quite timid at the beginning of the story when he marches in with the choir. However, as the story progresses, Roger starts to show signs of evil escaping him. Roger could be compeared to satan in an allegorical level. He can be decribed as satan because of the number of evil acts which have been manufested by him. He also is the one who is solely responsible for the death of Piggy. Roger is described as a small boy with dirty and shaggy black hair, ' he was noticeably darker than when he had dropped in, but the shock of black hair down his nape and low on his forehead, seemed to suit his gloomy face and ma... ... portray evil in the Lord of the Flies, such as Roger, the 'scar' and the 'beastie'. At the end of the novel they are saved by a naval officer. The arrival of the naval officer thus seems like a happy and ironic ending, but if one digs deeper it is just a continuance from one war to another. Once all the boys get on the Navy cruiser, they'll most likely just be subjected to more battle and fighting, this time on a worldwide level, due to the war taking place in the outside world. Golding makes his views and messages of the 'darkness in mans heart' with this book, because it shows us what man is capable of if there was no social control. He has shown us that without these conditions, our ideals, values, and the basics of right and wrong are lost. Without society's rigid rules, anarchy and savagery can come to light.

Oliver finds happiness and security Essay

Through Fagin, Oliver is made to work for Bill Sikes. Oliver is shot helping Sikes to burgle the house of a Mrs Maylie, Sikes escapes but Oliver is cared for by Rose and Mrs Maylie. Bill Sikes is another major bully within the novel, Oliver Twist. Nancy who is his mistress is also a victim of Sikes. Bill Sikes character is brutal, aggressive and violent. One major event when we see Sikes as a brutal bully is when he murders Nancy. Dickens shows this hatred by using these words ‘there was a fire in the eyes of both’ this is a metaphor it suggests a burning passion of hatred. Throughout the chapter when Nancy is murdered, Sikes is referred to as ‘the robber’, the housebreaker and the murderer’. As Sikes arrives at his house ‘Without one pause, or moments’ consideration; without once turning his head to the right or left, or raising his eyes to the sky, or lowering them to the ground, but looking straight before him with savage resolution his teeth so lightly compressed that the strained jaw seemed starting through his skin, the robber held on his headlong course, nor muttered a word, nor relaxed a muscle until he reached his own door.’ During this section, Dickens uses no full stops, but internal punctuation effectively. Sikes is apprehensive to what may be on the other side. By using this type of text, Dickens builds up speed, tension and anticipation for the reader. Dickens does this again when describing in detail when ‘he opened it softly ‘lifting a heavy table against it’ double locked the door.’ This makes the reader want to know what is about to happen. Dickens highlights bullying by using commands ‘Get up, Get up’ this is a command, which suggests aggression and violence. The word ‘murderer’ is used which suggests he has already killed Nancy, but Sikes again,’ seized a heavy club and struck her down’. Sikes striking Nancy with a club seems to be unnecessary as she is already dead. This is the climax of Sikes bullying he has resorted to murdering. Bill refers to Nancy as a ‘She Devil’. In her dying moments she shows her innocent side by praying, by ‘on her knees and ‘as high towards heaven as her feeble strength.’ The reader gets a sense of goodness against evilness. The reader again sympathises with Nancy as she is murdered while Dickens emphasises Sikes evil ways. Bill Sikes runs away from the scene of the crime which shows that ultimately he is a coward, and his conscience finally dawns on him. After Nancy’s death Dickens uses superlatives to show the reader how cruel Sikes crime is, he uses powerful words like ‘worst’, ‘foulest’ and ‘most cruel’. Bullying is again highlighted throughout this section. Here though, Dickens has highlighted a different type of bullying. It is immediate bullying that is used. Sikes performed a nasty and brutal murder. Dickens uses a metaphor of the weather to contrast the murder, it is an ironic contrast though, as sun brings new life but it can not bring Nancy back to life. ‘The sun, the bright sun’ shows Bill Sikes truly as a vicious bully.  Towards the end of the novel both Bill Sikes and Fagin die, while Oliver finds happiness and security.  The book makes the reader aware of Victorian society, the sheer terror of the workhouse and bullying within that society. Charles Dickens uses a range of techniques to present the bullies within the novel. He uses a wide range of language, sarcasm and irony throughout. Charles Dickens emphasises many types of bullying and throughout his novel highlights episodes of violence and bullying which most of Victorian society accepted.

Psychoeducational Groups, the Best Option for Teen Mom

PSYCHOEDUCATIONAL GROUPS:THE BEST OPTIONS FOR TEEN MOMS. English 215 November 24,2012 Teen pregnancy has been a problem in the United States for years. Although rates have dropped since the 1990’s, teen pregnancy rates in the United States are still higher than other western societies. Teenage pregnancy is accompanied with many negative consequences such as shortened educational experience, diminished employment, larger family size, increased risk of single- parent and poverty. Teen mothers struggle on a daily basis, if you are one of them you should visit a psychoeducational group.Teen mothers should attend psychoeducational groups because they can teach teen moms parenting skills, social skills, and provide them with the support they need in order to maintain a healthy life style. The group can also include teenage fathers. Psychoeducational groups will work best for this population because it will create a safe place where teenagers can learn parenting skills and have the s upport of one another. Since each teen is going through the same situation, they will be able to relate to one another and feel understood.While there are negative consequences for the mother, the infant is also at risk by being born to a teenage mother. One of the most common occurrences is low birth weight. Low birth weight increases the mortality rate. It also has long-term effects such as developmental and cognitive delays. Low birth weight can be caused by the mother’s lack of prenatal care, poor diet and stress. Prior to becoming pregnant, the teen’s bodies are not prepared for the change. Pregnancy takes a toll on the body that most teens are not ready for. When their body is not ready, the baby can witness the negative effects.The teens need to adopt healthier lifestyles once they become pregnant. They group will provide information about the importance of a healthy diet. They will also be encouraged to seek prenatal care and attend the necessary appointments. By teaching the girls the importance of health care, they will be able to carry it over to their child’s life. The group is clearly for pregnant teens and for teen mothers since they will teach them to take care of themselves before they give birth, that way when they have the baby the teenagers will be able to take ood care of the kids. Lacking these skills is no surprise because the teens were not prepared to become mothers and have a lack of knowledge about child development. In addition, it is important that teens learn parenting skills. The teens need to be taught child care skills in order to better their life and the life of their child. Throughout life, the infant will depend on the parent for the basic needs of life. If the parent is not able to provide, the child will suffer. The group provides them with the support they need to implement the skills.The types of skills the girls can learn are†¦ Also, teenage mothers are less likely to be responsive to their chi ld, less positive child rearing attitudes, more likely to abuse their children. Learning these skills can decrease this. The stress that comes along with teen parenting is inevitable. It can stem from many aspects of their life such as school, financial responsibilities, and providing a safe environment for their child. Stress can be linked to an increase in psychological problems for the mother and increased birth complications.Teenage mothers are more prone to developing depression. However, receiving social support can decrease the amount of stress the teen experiences. When the amount of stress is decreases, the risk of birth complications also lowers. It also decreases depressive symptoms post birth. Many teen mothers lack the support they need when they are going through this stage of life. While learning new skills, the teens are also able to gain a new support system. We can define support as the presences of stable human relationships.The mothers need support because most o f them, not all, come from a low socioeconomic status; minority status, urban living, and having single parent. Having a stable human relationship can be hard to find living under these conditions. Therefore, the group is able to provide the mothers with the support they need in order to overcome the obstacles of teen pregnancy. During the teenage years, individuals go through many developmental changes such as identity development, emerging independence, and developing intimate relationships with others.When adding a baby to the equation, the situation only becomes harder and it puts stress on the development of the teenager. Much of their development is put on hold because of the baby and the need to jump into the mother role when they are not prepared. Therefore, they do not learn how to develop intimate relationships with their peers. In addition to the educational aspect of the group; it can also provide a social network for the girls. They are able to interact with others and learn how to develop intimate relationships.Since they are all struggling with the same issue, they will find it easier to relate to one another. The mother’s education level is the main predictor of the baby’s life outcome. If the mother does not receive a high school diploma, the chances of living in poverty are increased. The group can educate mothers on alternative ways to obtain a high school diploma. There are many options the teens can use to obtain a high school diploma. One alternative is obtaining a G. E. D. There are also program that allow teens to finish high school in their home.The most important thing the group can do is encourage the mothers to finish high school and teach them the negative consequences of not finishing high school. Obtaining a well-paying job will be difficult without a high school diploma. The girls will also not be able to continue their education without a high school diploma. Living in poverty can lead to a lack of many necessitie s of life such as health care. Not having health care can put the baby at risk because they are not receiving routine check-ups.If they are not able to afford health care, there are many social services that can make health care accessible to them that they may not know about. Teens need to be educated on the methods available in order to prevent having more children. Many teenagers do not use any type of contraceptive during their first sexual experience. The group can offer the girls education about contraceptives and the correct way to use them. Many sexual education courses in the United States promote abstinence. While that would be the desirable result for all teens, it is not always the case.There are many forms of contraceptives that can be readily available to the girls if they continue to be sexually active. It is important to educate them on this topic so they can avoid having another child. The group offers a neutral environment in which they girls can ask any question t hey want and offer them information about different types of contraceptives. When helping teenage mothers overcome their struggles, they need to be taught certain skills in order to survive. The psychoeducational group will provide them with the resources they need.Teenagers will benefit from a group setting over an individual setting. For one, they will be able to engage with other girls who are going through the same thing and they can see that they are not alone. In the individual setting, teenagers may feel singled out or attacked. It can be hard for them to relate to someone who is not in the same situation as them. Also, since teen mothers do not have the time to socialize and develop social skills, the group setting offers them a chance to develop the social skills needed. They will have an interactive experience for the purpose of learning new skills.While interacting with other people, they will be exposed to new ideas and viewpoints about their situation. Learning how to s ocialize with others will improve their relationships at home. It can also improve their self-esteem. While learning from the other girls, they can also teach them the strategies they have used. The focus of psychoeducational groups is preventing behaviors and teaching new skills. Therefore, it is not therapy based. This can be beneficial when working with teenagers because therapy can be viewed as a negative thing.For some cultures, seeking therapy may even be out of the question. If the group is based on developing skills, it takes away from the therapy aspect. Since many of the teen mothers are not ready for motherhood, the group can provide them with the necessary parenting skills they will need to know. By teaching them parenting skills, the girls can be more confident in their parenting abilities. When they know how to appropriately handle a situation, they are less likely to take it out on their children. Also, keeping their stress at a low level will have positive benefits f or the parent-child relationship.The benefits of a psychoeducational group for teen pregnancy are evident. At this age, teens are experiencing many developmental changes and raising a child at the same time can be overwhelming. Since teen pregnancy is becoming more common, it is inevitable that counselors working with adolescences or families will encounter this topic. Once they are taught the right skills needed, they will feel more confident about being a parent. References: 1-Ambul Pediatr (2003). The parenting project for teen mothers: the impact of a nurturing curriculum on adolescent parenting skills and life hassles. ONLINE] Available at: http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmed/12974663. 2- Mobley, J, & Fort, S. D. (2007). Planning psycho-educational groups for school. Retrieved August 28,2007 from http://counselingoutfitters. com/vistas/vistas07/Mobley. pdf. 3- Bethany Casarjian (2003). The youth project. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www. lionheart. org/youth/youth_landing. 4- Valerie Burgess (2005). Improving Comfort About sex communication between parents and heir adolescents. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www. hawaii. edu/hivandaids/Improving_Comfort_About_Sex_Communication_Between_Parents

Impact of Enrons collapse on the accounting profession Essays

Impact of Enrons collapse on the accounting profession Essays Impact of Enrons collapse on the accounting profession Essay Impact of Enrons collapse on the accounting profession Essay The fiscal travesty at Enron Corporation in US corporate sector dented public sentiment over the effectivity and moralss of fiscal accounting, coverage, and scrutinizing procedures. President George W. Bush signed into jurisprudence the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 to guarantee the effectivity of answerability criterions for managers and top executives. The Act is structured into 11 rubrics. These rubrics are farther subdivided into 66 subdivisions which deal with hearer s independency, corporate duty, enhanced fiscal revelations, struggles of involvement, corporate answerability, among other things. The chief focal point of my reappraisal will be on subdivision 404: Internal Control. Section 404: Internal Controls. States Management must province their duty in set uping, maintaining, and analysing the internal control construction, and must measure the effectivity of such procedures 2. SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION The mission of the US Securities and Exchange Commission is to protect investors, maintain just, orderly, and efficient markets, and facilitate capital formation. ( US Securities and Exchange Commission, 2006 ) . Equally shortly as the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 was signed into jurisprudence, the execution function and the authorization to supervise the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board ( PCAOB ) were assigned to Securities Exchange Commission ( SEC ) . Schaeffer ( 2006 ) states that although Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 was signed into jurisprudence, corporate components were given a small leeway in following with assorted demands, and SEC besides had to widen the conformity deadline for another twelvemonth for the non accelerated filers to follow with the filing demands under the subdivision 404 of the Act. 3. PUBLIC COMPANY ACCOUNTING OVERSIGHT BOARD The passage of Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 established the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board. PCAOB is a private-sector, non-profit corporation created by the Sarbanes Oxley Act of 2002 to supervise the accounting professionals who provide independent audit study for publically traded companies. ( US Securities and Exchange Commission, 2006 ) . Their vision is to seek to be a theoretical account regulative administration. Using advanced and cost effectual tools, the PCAOB purposes to better audit quality, cut down the hazard of scrutinizing failures in the U.S. public securities market and advance public trust in both the fiscal coverage procedure and scrutinizing profession. ( Public Company Oversight Board, 2003-2010 ) . The PCAOB has been empowered to implement disciplinary and remedial actions against accounting professionals for breach of regulations and accounting criterions. They carry out these maps through standard scenes, appraisal, and enforcement programs. PCAOB issued Auditing Standard No.2 ( AS2 ) : Audited accounts of Internal Control over Financial Reporting Performed in Conjunction with an Audited account of Fiscal Statements. They concluded that the best attack to run into all the demands is to follow the COSO Framework. This was foremost published in 1992 by the Commission of Sponsoring Organisations of the Treadway Commission ( COSO ) under rubric of Internal Control Integrated Framework. 4. Committee OF SPONSORING ORGANISATIONS OF THE TREADWAY COMMISSION COSO was formed in 1985 to patronize the National Commission on Fraudulent Financial Reporting, an independent private-sector enterprise which studied the insouciant factors that can take to deceitful fiscal coverage. ( Committee of Sponsoring Organisations of the Treadway Commission, 2010 ) . The National Commission was sponsored jointly by five major professional associations headquartered in the United States: the American Accounting Association ( AAA ) , the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants ( AICPA ) , Financial Executives International ( FEI ) , the Institute of Internal Auditors ( IIA ) and the Institute of Management Accountants ( IMA ) . ( Committee of Sponsoring Organisations of the Treadway Commission, 2010 ) . Harmonizing to COSO its mission is to supply thought leading through the development of comprehensive models and counsel on endeavor hazard direction, internal control and fraud disincentive designed to better administration public presentation and administration and to cut down the extent of fraud in administrations. 5. INTERNAL CONTROL INTEGRATED FRAMEWORK Internal Control Integrated Framework, published by the Committee of Sponsoring Organisations of the Treadway Commission addresses the concerns identified in Section 404 of Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002. The model was developed to back up companies in guaranting the efficiency of their fiscal, operational, and conformity related internal controls. PCAOB recognises the effectivity of the model and issued in Auditing Standard No.2 ( AS2 ) that direction are required to measure the effectivity of their internal control over fiscal coverage, utilizing suited control standards such as the COSO Framework. 6. OBJECTIVES OF INTERNAL CONTROL INTEGRATED FRAMEWORK COSO ( 2010 ) defines internal control as a procedure, effected by an entity s board of managers, direction and other forces, designed to supply sensible confidence sing the accomplishment of aims in the undermentioned classs: Effectiveness and efficiency of operations: This deals with administration primary aims and that includes public presentation and profitableness ends and safeguarding of resources. Dependability of fiscal coverage: This deals with the readying of dependable published fiscal statements. Conformity with applicable Torahs and ordinances: This addresses conformity with Torahs and ordinances to which to which the entity is administration is capable. The aims of COSO model is to publish a model that has a common cognition of internal control amongst its users and assist direction in measuring and bettering its internal control. 7. Components OF INTEGRATED FRAMEWORK The original internal control integrated model had five interconnected constituents. These constituents are: Control Environment Hazard Appraisal Control Activities Information and Communication Monitoring The model was updated in the twelvemonth 2004 to foreground the significance of placing and pull offing hazard across the endeavor. The three constituents that were added are: Objective Puting Event Designation Hazard Response All of these constituents have to be satisfied before an administration s internal control can be deemed to be effectual and efficient. 7.1. CONTROL ENVIRONMENT The control environment of an administration is of import in measuring the internal control system of an administration. The control environment consists of ethical values, unity, competencies of employees and direction s doctrine and operating manner. Harmonizing to Schaeffer ( 2006 ) The internal environment encompasses the tone of an administration and sets the footing for how hazard is viewed and addressed by an entity s people, including hazard direction doctrine and hazard appetency, unity and ethical values, and the environment in which they operate. 7.2. Hazard ASSESSMENT Harmonizing to Khawar ( 2008 ) all administrations have to confront both internal and external hazards. He farther states that the chief ground for these hazards are the changing nature of economic, industry, ordinances, and operational activities. Management needs to determine and measure the hazard associated with the readying of dependable fiscal statements. As stated by Schaeffer ( 2006 ) Hazards are analyzed, sing likeliness and impact, as a footing for finding how they should be managed. Hazards are assessed on an built-in and residuary footing. 7.3. Control ACTIVITIES Once hazards are identified, appropriate steps and other control activities are put into pattern to assist guarantee the realization of the fiscal coverage aims. The control steps are the policies and processs that help guarantee that direction directives are carried out. ( Committee of Sponsoring Organisations of the Treadway Commission, 2010 ) . These steps occur within the full administration, in all degrees and they include scope of step every bit diverse as blessings, confirmations, segregation of responsibilities, mandates, rapprochements and reappraisals of operating public presentation.

Marijuana- Yes or No essays

Marijuana- Yes or No essays Should the Nation Try to Smoke the Pain Away? Marijuana (a.k.a. pot, weed, Mary Jane, bud, ganja, grass, smoke, dank, green) Marijuana has many bad effects on the body. Although a user cannot become physically addicted to marijuana, he/she may become psychologically dependent on the drug. Also, a person driving under the influence of marijuana is a danger to themselves and others. Mental breakdown can also occur if weed is smoked like mad. Marijuana is also known as a gateway drug. It often leads to use of more dangerous drugs. Many people often abuse this drug. If marijuana were legalized, many people would take advantage of this, and use it excessively. Marijuana is a "gateway" drug. Even if legal, it would lead to the use of more dangerous drugs. When arrested for possession of marijuana, the possessor gets put into rehabilitation centers, which use our tax money! There are supposed legitimate reasons that marijuana should be legalized. One of these is lawful medical use of the drug. It is said that it can help cancer, AIDS, and glaucoma patients. However, no other drug prescribed is smoked. New findings show that marijuana is somewhat harmful to AIDS and cancer patients because the active ingredient in marijuana slightly reduces the bodies white blood cells which fight off infections. After many years of research of marijuana, there has been no hard proof that it can be used as a medicine. No scientific proof has been found! The Federal Government tries to stop the use of marijuana. Government agencies spend millions of dollars every year to try and get rid of marijuana. The amount of money they spend is increasing, however the use of marijuana is also. Their goal was to inflate prices so less people would purchase the drug, but the opposite has been happening. Although, fair cases can be fought that marijuana has a reason to be legal, it should stay illegal. Because of t ...

A Brief Biography of Karl Marx

A Brief Biography of Karl Marx Karl Marx (May 5, 1818–March 14, 1883), a Prussian political economist, journalist, and activist, and author of the seminal works, The Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital, influenced generations of political leaders and socioeconomic thinkers. Also known as the Father of Communism, Marxs ideas gave rise to furious, bloody revolutions, ushered in the toppling of centuries-old governments, and serve as the foundation for political systems that still rule over more than  20 percent of the worlds population- or one in five people on the planet. The Columbia History of the World called Marxs writings one of the most remarkable and original syntheses in the history of human intellect.   Personal Life and Education Marx was born in Trier, Prussia (present-day Germany) on May 5, 1818, to Heinrich Marx and Henrietta Pressberg. Marxs parents were Jewish, and he came from a long line of rabbis on both sides of his family. However, his father converted to Lutheranism to evade antisemitism prior to Marxs birth. Marx  was educated at home by his father until high school, and in 1835 at the age of 17, enrolled at Bonn University in Germany, where he studied law at his fathers request. Marx, however, was much more interested in philosophy and literature. Following that first year at the university, Marx became engaged to Jenny von Westphalen, an educated baroness. They would later marry in 1843. In 1836, Marx enrolled at the University of Berlin, where he soon felt at home when he joined a circle of brilliant and extreme thinkers who were challenging existing institutions and ideas, including religion, philosophy, ethics, and politics. Marx graduated with his doctoral degree in 1841. Career and Exile After school, Marx turned to writing and journalism to support himself. In 1842 he became the editor of the liberal Cologne newspaper Rheinische Zeitung, but the Berlin government banned it from publication the following year. Marx left Germany- never to return- and spent two years in Paris, where he first met his collaborator, Friedrich Engels. However, chased out of France by those in power who opposed his ideas, Marx moved to Brussels, in 1845, where he founded the German Workers’ Party and was active in the Communist League. There, Marx networked with other leftist intellectuals and activists and- together with Engels- wrote his most famous work, The Communist Manifesto. Published in 1848, it contained the famous line: Workers of the world unite. You have nothing to lose but your chains. After being exiled from Belgium, Marx finally settled in London where he lived as a stateless exile for the rest of his life. Marx worked in journalism and wrote for both German and English language publications. From 1852 to 1862, he was a correspondent for the New York Daily Tribune, writing a total of 355 articles. He also continued writing and formulating his theories about the nature of society and how he believed it could be improved, as well as actively campaigning for socialism. He spent the rest of his life working on  a three-volume tome, Das Kapital, which saw its first volume published in 1867. In this work, Marx aimed to explain the economic impact of capitalist society, where a small group, which he called the  bourgeoisie, owned the means of production and used their power to exploit the proletariat, the working class that actually produced the goods that enriched the capitalist tsars. Engels edited and published the second and third volumes of Das Kapital shortly after Marxs death. Death and Legacy While Marx remained a relatively unknown figure in his own lifetime, his ideas and the ideology of Marxism began to exert a major influence on socialist movements shortly after his death. He succumbed to cancer on March 14, 1883, and was buried in Highgate Cemetery in London. Marxs theories about society, economics, and politics, which are collectively known as Marxism, argue that all society progresses through the dialectic of class struggle. He was critical of the current socio-economic form of society, capitalism, which he called the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie, believing it to be run by the wealthy middle and upper classes purely for their own benefit, and predicted that it would inevitably produce internal tensions which would lead to its self-destruction and replacement by a new system, socialism. Under socialism, he argued that society would be governed by the working class in what he called the dictatorship of the proletariat. He believed that socialism would eventually be replaced by a stateless, classless society called  communism. Continuing Influence Whether Marx intended for the proletariat to rise up and foment revolution or whether he felt that the ideals of communism, ruled by an egalitarian proletariat, would simply outlast capitalism, is debated to this day. But, several successful revolutions did occur, propelled by groups that adopted communism- including those in  Russia, 1917-1919,  and China, 1945-1948. Flags and banners depicting Vladimir Lenin, the leader of the Russian Revolution, together with Marx, were long displayed in the  Soviet Union. The same was true in China, where similar flags showing the leader of that countrys revolution,  Mao Zedong,  together with Marx were also prominently displayed. Marx has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history, and in a 1999 BBC poll was voted the thinker of the millennium by people from around the world. The memorial at his grave is always covered by tokens of appreciation from his fans. His tombstone is inscribed with words that echo those from The Communist Manifesto, which seemingly predicted the influence Marx would have on world politics and economics: Workers of all lands unite.†

Nutrition Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Nutrition - Essay Example It is I this regard that a program that is aimed at reducing the incidence and prevalence of this condition among preschool children is justifiable. Project Plan The plan of the project includes identification of the needs of preschool children and their parents in relation to childhood obesity. Needs such as education requirements for parents on nutrition will be assessed during the program. The needs of children for improved health will be determined during the project through screening criteria. This includes determining the seriousness of the obesity condition among these children including the impact that it has had on their physical, emotional and cognitive well being. The assessment and determination of needs will be followed by a design and implementation of the most appropriate interventions for overcoming the problem. This includes the involvement of various stakeholders and the community in the project. Evaluation of the project in relation to effectiveness in achievement of the set goals and objectives will also be part of the project which will be culminated by reporting of the findings and recommendations to relevant authorities, partners and players. Expected Outcomes It is expected that at the end of the project, the society is aware of the proper nutritional measure that will help them to prevent childhood obesity among preschool children. ... In addition, training of teachers and parents on the management of the children in preventing obesity is one of the major expected outcomes of the project. In addition, the preschoolers are expected to have been involved in between moderate to strenuous physical activity as a way through which they would keep fit both physically and cognitively. Target Audience The target audience for the project includes parents, teachers and the preschoolers themselves. This is because the activities that will be conducted within the project aim at solving the problem of obesity among the children with the help of their parents and teachers. For example the playground which is one of the outcomes of the project aims at allowing the children to utilize it in physical exercise which will be a prerequisite for improved health and prevention of obesity among them. Moreover the training program will target the teachers and parents so that they would be equipped with adequate skills and knowledge in help ing the young children to overcome their condition. Stakeholders/Partners The stakeholders of this project include the government, non-governmental organizations, health care systems, health care professionals, school administrators, teachers, parents, the community and the preschool children themselves. Each of these stakeholders will play important roles in promoting the achievement of the goals and objectives of the project. The government through its agencies at the local level will approve the project in addition to provision financial resources to support the project upon approval by the relevant authorities. The non-governmental organizations are also part of the donors of the

Analysis of Michel Foucault's theories of Power, Knowledge and Essay

Analysis of Michel Foucault's theories of Power, Knowledge and Technologies of the self - Essay Example Donnie Darko, a movie which was directed by Richard Kelly back in 2001, is a cult psychological thriller film. Basically, the main characters in the movie named Donnie Darko is a troubled teenager who was searching for the real meaning of life. Paranoid schizophrenia is a common type of schizophrenia which causes a person to experience a series of paranoid, delusions, and hallucinations related to auditory sensory or hearing. Due to the fact that Donnie is suffering from the symptoms of paranoid schizophrenia, he often encounters emotional and psychological disturbances due to the presence of auditory hallucination. For this reason, his outlook in life was totally different from what other teenagers are going through in life. Not only did he get much trouble inside the school compound but also within the family circle and the community. For this study, the researcher will focus on discussing Foucault’s technologies of self, power, and theory of knowledge. To enable the readers to have a better understanding of the subject matter, the first part of study has been divided into three major sections. As part of conducting a literature review, the first section will analyse and discuss about Foucault’s technologies of self. The second section of the study will tackle Foucault’s point-of-view regarding knowledge whereas the third section will discuss about Foucault’s theories behind power. The second part of the study will provide the readers with a brief summary regarding the movie Donnie Darko. Upon analyzing the thoughts of Foucault on technologies of self, power, and theory of knowledge, the researcher will examine the main characters behind the movie entitled Donnie Darko. In the process of discussing the movie, Foucault’s technologies of self, power, and the theory of knowledge will be used in analyzing the personal attitude and social behaviour of Donnie – the main characters of the movie

Head Loss Fluid Mechanics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Head Loss Fluid Mechanics - Essay Example Fluid flowing through a pipe encounters resistance because of resistance offered by the pipeline, viscosity of the fluid, and the roughness present in the pipeline’s interior surface. The main energy loss in a pipeline is because of friction as the pipeline has usually long length (Sawhney 2011, p629). The pipeline’s total energy decreases based on the direction of the flow. Fluid flowing through a pipe encounters resistance because of the resistance offered by the pipefittings, fluid viscosity, and the roughness present in the pipeline’s interior surface. Turbulence is generated in fluid flow because of resistance leading to loss of pressure and energy head (Sawhney 2011, p630). The decline in fluid flow energy (generally expressed as units of feet) as the fluid flows through the system is referred to as head loss (Wolf Creek Nuclear Operating Corporation 2004, p2). Head loss in pipeline can be variable head loss due to changing cross-section and constant veloci ty head loss. The constant velocity head loss occurs because of the kinetic energy loss as the fluid flows out of the pipeline having some velocity at the exit and due to the friction in the pipe. The head loss because of friction occurs because of the resistance given by the pipe’s surface roughness when the fluid layer glides over the pipeline’s wall. It also occurs because of the resistance given by the fluid layers to one another (Sawhney 2011, p630). When the length of the pipe is 500 times larger than its diameter, the pipeline is referred to as a long pipeline. Such a pipeline experiences head loss because of friction as the major loss. Fluid flowing at the exit of the pipeline has a particular velocity, which is the head loss because of the kinetic energy flowing out of the fluid. This is considered a minor loss. Variable velocity head loss occurs because of the variable velocity leading into a pipeline each time a change happens inside the pipeline’s cr oss-section. For instance, changes in cross-section can occur due to sudden enlargements, many pipe fitments, sudden contractions, and pipe entrance (Sawhney 2011, p630-631). Flow in Pipes (Darcy’s Formula) Henry Philibert Gaspard Darcy (1803-1858), a French scientists made significant contributions to hydraulics. One of his significant contributions was the experimental development of pipes’ pressure-loss formula. Using the equation below (equation 1) one can arrive at the formulation Darcy had. The formula is from friction coefficient formula substituted with shear stress from the definition of Cf. This form of relationship suggests that if the friction coefficient is identified, then the calculation of the pressure drop is possible. Assuming that one is using long circular pipes, can be used instead of where L is the pipe’s length: The above formula can be rearranged to a form that was used several years ago: Generally, the formula is close to that of Darcyâ €™s; however, he made use of the pipe diameter (D) rather than 2R, and a friction factor f as an alternative to the friction coefficient (which is 4 times larger) Using the equation for laminar flow one gets The Darcy’s pressure-drop formula can be written if the average velocity in the pipeline is known: Following the original formula, g was added to both sides of equation. This is generally a one-dimensional model since the average

Communicable diseases Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Communicable diseases - Essay Example Approximately 2 billion persons in the world are infected with TB. In the United States (US) for instance, almost 15 million people are infected with TB. When it becomes active, TB kills 60% of the people who do not quest for medication. This percentage correlates with 3 million deaths experienced worldwide every year. In the US, approximately 20,000 TB infections take place every year (Denholm, Eisen, McBryde & Street, 2012). TB has treatment; when treated, about 90% of the active TB patients survive. Various governments including the federal government of Canada are working towards reducing the incidence, as well as the burden of TB. Among the efforts put by Canada include conducting investigations in order to enhance early detection as well as treatment of individuals having TB so as to control the spread of the disease. â€Å"Early detection as well as treatment of individuals with latent TB infection who are at high risk of progression to active TB disease† (Tuberculosis, 2012) is also one of the key component of not only an effective TB prevention, but also control program. The occurrence and spread of TB are highly influenced by social determinants related to health. In connection with this assertion, many governments are championing collaborative actions so as to address the risk factors for TB. According to Public Health Agency of Canada (2014), the environmental factors related to TB include overcrowding housing, poor ventilation as well as homelessness. Additionally, the Public Health Agency of Canada also claims that unsanitary living conditions, as well as lower income levels, contribute significantly to the occurrence and spread of TB. In connection with CDC assertion, it is evident that overcrowding as well as poor ventilation exposes people to fluids containing the TB bacterium. As introduced above, it is clear that TB is regarded as a â€Å"disease of the poor and socially disadvantaged† (Chandler,

BUSINESS Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

BUSINESS Report - Essay Example Also we can observe that the management has redesigned the job of the workers. The hierarchical structure has been diminished and the teams hold more responsibility. Eventually, this will create new challenges for the members of the team. The jobs of the workers are enriched. The jobs of the team members are halved so that they can concentrate on the development of the team. Every fortnight the team members talk for 45 minutes to solve problems and to gather new ideas. The responsibility of the workers has been increased and the role played by the workers is changed. From mere assembly line work the job now involves various tasks such as planning, organizing, leading and directing. b) The management of BMW has taken the approach to motivate the employees as mentioned in theory Z. Theory Z mentions the major postulates of Japanese management practices and how these practices can be adopted to the environment of other countries. The major features of this theory are building trust, strong bond between the organization and employees, employee involvement and no formal structure. According to this approach, trust is the first primary factor for motivation. Trust between the members of the organization at various levels has to be built through integrity and transparency. At BMW, the work teams have been very effective in building the relationships between the employees across the organization. Another major aspect that has to be noted in this approach is the employee involvement. Any decision affecting the production practices is being done by the team members which increases the motivation of the members. Also this increases the commitment of the employees and gives due recognition to their role. Under this approach the formal structures in an organization are no longer adopted. Here, at BMW, the work teams resolve the issued irrespective of the formal hierarchical structures. The major advantages of

Rule of Law - UK law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Rule of Law - UK law - Essay Example This drawback was recently remedied substantially, albeit not completely, by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005.1 For instance, there is now a Supreme Court under Part 3 of the law which has taken over the judicial powers of the House of Lords which used to have appellate jurisdiction. Being then all under the Queen, the rule of law was said to be hinged on her sovereignty in the parliament which makes laws and on her sovereignty in the courts which interpret and apply the law. From within this ambit was derived the structure of the so-called twin foundations. While it is true that the duties and functions of the Queen are more ceremonial, there are still aspects over which she wields power which she may exercise at will. Important examples are her needed assent for the final enactment of a bill into law and her influence over the appointment of the Prime Minister and the other members of the cabinet because of the need for the Queen's formal consent. Although reduced in the course o f history, the supremacy of the monarchy can still be felt. As a matter of fact, there were, and still there are, moves to abolish it on the strong suggestions that it is inutile and hugely expensive.2 Some claim that a democratic standard republic will be a better and effective form.3 Another aspect in the United Kingdom government worth pondering is that it does not have a complete written set of codified laws and that includes its own constitution. Case laws which are actually compilations of decided or accepted jurisprudence have a lot to do in the law-making processes which are, ironically, borne out of judicial pronouncements. This means that what the courts resolved would become laws. Stated straightforwardly, therefore, the makers of the law interpret the law in the event of a controversy or in incidents where there are doubts in construing that particular law. Incidentally, with the new Constitutional Reform Act 2005, the new Supreme Court may be able to thresh out all the possible hitches. Since the high court started working only on October 1, 2009, a lot of patience is needed until the intended reforms are made effective slowly and gradually in the mainstream of justice administration. Along this line, it can be hoped in large part that the new law for constitutional reform will bring about positive changes.4 The twin foundations of the Queen's sovereignty During one of the deliberations of the constitutional reform bill, the Law Lords had the occasion to mention the ruling in X v Morgan Gramplan (Publishers) Ltd. which enunciated the principle that the rule of law in the United Kingdom is founded on both the Queen's sovereignty in the parliament which is charged with the enactment of laws and the Queen's sovereignty over judicial proceedings particularly those administered by the House of Lords in its duties anent appellate jurisdiction.5 It has always been debated if the somewhat irregular or abnormal circumstance contradicts the precepts on separation of powers. It is like taking exceptions on one person being the prosecutor, the judge and the executioner. The notion has a direct correlation with the

BUSINESS Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

BUSINESS Report - Essay Example Also we can observe that the management has redesigned the job of the workers. The hierarchical structure has been diminished and the teams hold more responsibility. Eventually, this will create new challenges for the members of the team. The jobs of the workers are enriched. The jobs of the team members are halved so that they can concentrate on the development of the team. Every fortnight the team members talk for 45 minutes to solve problems and to gather new ideas. The responsibility of the workers has been increased and the role played by the workers is changed. From mere assembly line work the job now involves various tasks such as planning, organizing, leading and directing. b) The management of BMW has taken the approach to motivate the employees as mentioned in theory Z. Theory Z mentions the major postulates of Japanese management practices and how these practices can be adopted to the environment of other countries. The major features of this theory are building trust, strong bond between the organization and employees, employee involvement and no formal structure. According to this approach, trust is the first primary factor for motivation. Trust between the members of the organization at various levels has to be built through integrity and transparency. At BMW, the work teams have been very effective in building the relationships between the employees across the organization. Another major aspect that has to be noted in this approach is the employee involvement. Any decision affecting the production practices is being done by the team members which increases the motivation of the members. Also this increases the commitment of the employees and gives due recognition to their role. Under this approach the formal structures in an organization are no longer adopted. Here, at BMW, the work teams resolve the issued irrespective of the formal hierarchical structures. The major advantages of

The impact of the Federal Reserve on the elections in 1992 Term Paper

The impact of the Federal Reserve on the elections in 1992 - Term Paper Example This led Federal Reserve board to make small reduction on short term interest rates, 1 perhaps with the confidence that such reduction was to be mild and brief. According to an News Times report, FED trimmed Federal Fund rates that banks charge one another for overnight loans from 6% to 5.75%, with the discount rate ,which Fed levies on banks for short term loans remaining constant at 5.25%.1However, the effects of interest rates are usually not realized immediately, and take time to be felt in the market.2 The delayed actions by Fed in lowering interests rates were therefore not realized immediately upon the interest cuts; recession was increasing rapidly, and as people have increasing hope in the policies of an opponent in such cases, Clinton’s economic policy in 1992 election were magnified by Fed delayed actions, with studies portraying the electorate as preferring Clinton to Bush. 3There have been discussions on the effectiveness of this intervention in the market by Fed in 1992, where many analysts have termed the intervention as too late and too little in terms of stimulating the economy; with many analysts arguing the interve ntion resulted to increasing inflationary rates in the economy as long term interest rates remained persistent.3 Despite reduced interest rates to encourage borrowing, fed interference in the economic dynamics resulted to increased inflationary rates, which were evidence after the elections. To deal with growing public spending deficit, the top marginal income tax rate was raised from 31% in 1992 to 39.6% in 1993, which was similar to a 42.55 increase when Medicare tax hikes were included. 4This was proved by the economic growth that was recorded at 4.3% annually in the last quarter of 1992, but dropped to 1.7% annual rate in first quarter of 1993. 4 This reduced growth was a result of long term interest rates that continued to haunt the economy; the high interest rates were shelved in 1992 when they were

Welfare Myths and Realities Essay Example for Free

Welfare Myths and Realities Essay Society has continued to undergo evolution and change throughout the history of civilization. These are the factors that spell out the dividing line between social classes and castes that are redrawn on an almost daily basis by mankind. This is why there will always be a mixture of fact and fiction surrounding the way present day society views those people who were unlucky enough to end up at the bottom of the societal class chain. These are the people who are forced to survive using welfare to keep food on the table, money in their pockets, and clothes on their backs. It is highly unfortunate that the word Welfare has come to mean a person who does not want to work unless he is forced to work. But this is not always what defines a person on welfare. In todays world, the workplace is a highly competitive environment where people no longer have security of tenure in their jobs. People want to work. The problem is, there are not enough jobs to go around. The reality is that when a person loses his job these days, it is highly unlikely that he will be able to get new regular employment anytime in the short-term future. So, he is forced to take what odd jobs he can while trying his luck at landing regular employment. Realistically speaking, temp jobs wont pay the rent nor keep food on the table. In order to stay afloat, the person must take welfare assistance. This is a not a permanent set up for most, it is just financial aid until the person can get back on his feet. Hey, he paid his taxes and his Social Security dues. Therefore, it is only proper that the system helps him get back on his feet. Nobody in his right mind would want to make welfare his way of life. Welfare tends to affect a person both psychologically and emotionally as he struggles to try to go back to the way of life that he has become accustomed to. Even though they try to get off welfare at the soonest possible time, sometimes, he is forced to go back on welfare for one reason or another. The last thing he wants to become is a welfare cyclist but he is left with no other choice. Psychologically, a man unable to support himself is thrown into despair and self-pity. He thinks less of himself and wishes to feel better by being able to support himself without the aid of welfare. The last thing he wants for himself is to get involved in welfare cycling. This is the act of going on welfare for short periods of time during which a person has lost his job. It is totally unfair to say, the federal welfare program encourages people to stay poor. (Margaret L. Andersen Howard F. Taylor, 2003, p. 200) Man is an ambition driven entity. He pursues lofty goals and ambitions in life and does not deem himself a success or a complete individual unless he has something to show for his existence. It can be in the form of finances, or something solid like real estate. Whatever it may be, there is nothing that can drive a man to have a desire to stay poor. The government does not give enough financial support to the welfare organizations for one to believe that those on welfare would be getting enough welfare checks or food coupons to sustain any kind of lifestyle. These benefits are available only to a limited number of families who must pass a stringent interview and verification process. Neither is it true that only Blacks or Hispanic families benefit from welfare. There are also White families who are down on their luck and also move from place to place or even state to state in search of the elusive jobs. The welfare myth about women is proves to be even most unfair. Women are the light that guides a family. While husbands work and bring home what pay then can in the lower middle class society, the women are left at home to tend to the children. Most of them cannot afford child-care and therefore help their husband earn income in order to improve their basic lifestyle. This is why most women collect welfare for their families. If there were proper child-care assistance provided to these families, both parents would have a chance to work instead of having to line up collecting unemployment checks just to make ends meet. Of the 100% of the total federal budget, only 60% of this it spent on assisting poor families. This provides subsidies for the lowest income families basic living and medical assistance. There is absolutely no truth to the belief that certain welfare recipients are paid benefits that they no longer qualify for. Though the system is not foolproof, as some payments errors are done due to human error, there are still safety measures in place to make sure that overpayments are limited and that any fraudulent transactions are weeded out in the process. Going on welfare was never meant to make any man rich. It is not a status symbol that will make you the envy of others either. Often times, the amount of the checks given to the people involved are below the poverty level. It is really meant only to be a stop gap measure for those who have had a stroke of financial bad luck. It was not meant to sustain any person throughout life. The myths that were created by the fear of going on welfare gave the deserving welfare beneficiaries a bad name. It has branded them in such a way that society tends to be judge and jury of the way they conduct their lives and personal businesses. Welfare was meant to be a helping hand when one needs it the most. Welfare was envisioned, developed and meant to help a person get back on his feet after a devastating financial setback. To believe all these myths that have been handed down from generation to generation would be a disservice to such a humane undertaking that is done for and on behalf of your fellowman. Works Cited Andersen, Margaret L. Taylor, Howard R. (2003). Sociology The Essentials (2nd Ed. ) Welfare Myths: Fact or Fiction? Exploring the Truth about Welfare. 1996. December 22, 2006, Retrieved from http://hcom. csumb. edu/welfare/resources/myths_facts. html Irons, Meghan Erica. Dispelling Myths About Welfare. December 21, 2006, Retrieved from http://www. voice. neu. edu/960215/welfare. html

Molecular Genetics of Cancer

Molecular Genetics of Cancer INTRODUCTION It has been established that cancer is a genetic disease, characterized by interplay of mutant form of the oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes leading to the uncontrolled growth and spread of cancer cells. While some of the mutant genes may be inherited, others occur in the somatic cells of the individuals, which can divide and form tumour. Completion of Human Genome Sequencing Project has generated a wealth of new information about the mutations that trigger a cell to become cancerous. It has now been possible to understand to great extent the relationship between genes and cancer, and how mutations, chromosomal changes, viruses and environmental agents play a role in the development of cancer. In this chapter current understanding of the nature and cause of cancer has been presented. CELL CYCLE AND CANCER During mitotic cell division, in every cell, all chromosomes must duplicate faithfully and a copy of the each has to be distributed to progeny cells. Progression through the cell cycle is controlled by the activities of many genes. At different stages in the cell cycle there exist control points (G1, G2, S, and M stages) at which the cell cycle is arrested if there is damage to the genome or cell-cycle machinery. Such mechanism helps to repair the damage or destroy the cell. Through this process it is possible to prevent the possibility of dividing a defective cell and from becoming cancerous. Proteins and enzymes called cyclines and cycline-dependent kinases (Cdks) respectively are the key components that are involved in the regulation of events in the checkpoints. At the G1-to-S checkpoint, two different G1 cycline/Cdks complex forms, resulting in activation of the kinase. The kinase catalyzes a series of phosphorylations (addition of phosphate group) of cell-cycle control proteins, affecting the functions of those proteins and leading to translation into the S phase. Similarly, at the G2-to-M checkpoint, a G2 cycline binds to a Cdk to form a complex. Phosphorylation of the Cdk by another kinase keeps the Cdk inactive. Removal of a phosphate group from Cdk by a phosphataes enzyme activates the Cdk. Thereafter, the cell moves from S to M phase, due to phosphorylation of proteins by Cdk. Regulation of Cell Division in Normal Cells Division of normal cells is regulated by both extracellular and cellular molecules that operate in a complicated signal system. Steroids and hormones made in other tissues are extracellular molecules, which influence the growth and division of some other tissues. These extracellular molecular are known as growth factors, which bind to specific receptors on their target cells. The receptors are proteins that span the plasma membrane, and the growth factor binds to the part of the receptor which lies outside of the cell. The signal is then transmitted to an intracellular part through the membrane-embedded part of the receptor. Thereafter, the signal is relayed through a series of proteins, which ultimately activate nuclear genes involved in stimulation and division of cells through transcription factors (Fig 13.1a). In the opposite direction, inhibition of cell growth and division is regulated by growth-inhibiting factors (Fig 13.1b). The process which involves either growth-stimulator y or growth-inhibitory signal after binding of the extracellular factor to the receptors is called signal transduction, and the proteins involved in such process are called signal transducers. Cell division in normal cells takes place only when there exist balance between stimulatory and inhibitory signals from outside the cells. Any mutation either in the stimulatory or inhibitory genes or genes encoding cell surface receptors involved in cell cycle control may cause imbalance and loss of control of cell division. CANCERS ARE GENETIC DISEASE Clinically, cancer is defined as a large number of complex diseases that behave differently depending on the cell types from which they originate. However, at the molecular level, all cancers exhibit common characteristics, and thus they can be grouped as a family. All cancer cells share two fundamental properties: unregulated cell proliferation, characterized by abnormal growth and division, and metastasis, a process that allow cancer cells to spread and invade other parts of the body. When a cell loses its genetic control over its growth and division, it may give rise to a benign tumour, a multicellular mass. Such tumours may cause no serious harm and can often be removed by surgery. However, if cells of the tumour also acquire the ability to break loose, enter the blood stream, invade other cells, they may induce formation of secondary tumours elsewhere in the body. Such tumours are called malignant, which are difficult to treat and may become life threatening. A benign tumour may become malignant through multiple steps and genetic mutations. Mutations in three kinds of genes can leads to cancer. These are proto-oncogenes, tumour suppressor genes and mutator genes. Mutant proto-oncogenes are called oncogenes, are usually more active than normal cells. The product of oncogenes stimulates cell proliferation. The normal tumour suppressor genes inhibit cell proliferation, while the mutants found in tumour cells have lost their inhibitory function. The normal mutator genes are required to ensure fidelity of replication and maintenance of genome integrity, while mutant mutator genes in cancer cells make the cells prone to accumulate mutational errors. RETROVIRUS AND ONCOGENES Most cancer causing animal viruses are RNA viruses known as retroviruses, and the oncogenes carried by RNA tumour viruses are altered forms of normal animal host cell genes. Infection with retroviruses can transform normal host cells to the neoplastic state, and such cells proliferate in an uncontrolled manner to produce tumour. Examples of retroviruses include human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1), mouse mammary tumour virus, felin leukemia virus, and Rous sarcoma virus. A typical retrovirus particle has a protein core, which often is icosahedral in shape, with two copies of plus-sense (means directly translatable) single stranded RNA molecule (7kb and 10 kb). The core is surrounded by an envelope with virus-encoded glycoproteins inserted into it (Fig 13.2). The virus enters the host cell by interacting with the host cell surface receptor through its glycoproteins present in the envelope. To understand how retroviruses cause cancer in animals, it is essential to know their life cycle. Rous sarcoma virus (RSV) is one of the earliest retrovirus studied on induction of cancer. When a retrovirus like RSV infect a cell, the RNA genome is released from the viral particle, and a double stranded DNA copy of the genome is made by reverse transcriptase (Fig 13.3). This is known as proviral DNA. The proviral DNA then enters the nucleus of the infected cell, and integrates into the host chromosome at random locations. The integrated DNA copy is called provirus. At the left end of all retroviral RNA genomes consists of the sequence R and U5, and U3 and R at the right end. Powerful enhancer and promoter elements are located in the U5 and U3 sequences (Fig 13.3). During proviral DNA synthesis by reverse transcriptase, the end sequences are duplicated to produce long terminal repeats of U3-R-U5 (LTRs in Fig 13.3), which contain many of the transcription regulatory signals for the vir al sequence. The two ends of the proviral DNA are ligated to produce a circle, a double stranded molecule in which the two LTRs are next to each other. Staggered nicks are made in both viral and cellular DNAs, and integration of the viral DNA begins. The viral DNA ends joined through recombination. Integration occurs at this point, and single stranded gaps are ligated. The integration of retrovirus proviral DNA results in a duplication of DNA at the target site, producing short, direct repeats in the host cell DNA flanking the provirus. The proviral DNA is transcribed by host RNA polymerase II, after integration into the host DNA. The retroviruses have three protein- coding genes for the virus life cycle: gag, pol, and env (Fig 13.3). The gag gene encodes a precursor protein that is cleaved to produce virus particle protein. The pol gene encodes a precursor protein which produces an enzyme called reverse transcriptase, required for the integration of the proviral DNA into the host chromosome. The env gene encodes the precursor to the envelop glycoprotein. The progeny virus particles are produced when transcription products of the entire integrated viral DNA are packed into new viral particles. The new virus particles are released and can infect new host cells. A retrovirus may induce cancer in the host cells through two different ways. First, the proviral DNA may integrate by chance near one of the cell’s normal proto-oncogenes. The strong enhancers and promoters in the provirus then stimulate transcription of proto-oncogenes present in the host cell at high levels or at inappropriate timing. This leads to stimulation of host-cell proliferation. Second, a retrovirus may pick-up a copy of a host proto-oncogene and integrates it into its genome (Fig 13.4). The integrated oncogene may mutate during the process of transfer into the virus, or it may be expressed at abnormal levels, due to action of the viral promoters. Retroviruses that carry these viral oncogenes can infect and transform normal cells into tumour cells. Different oncogenic retroviruses carry different oncogenes. Most oncogenic retroviruses cannot replicate as they do not have a full set of life-cycle genes. Thus they cannot change growth properties of the host cells. They are called nononcogenic retroviruses. HIV-1 is a nononcogenic retrovirus. On the contrary, RSV is an oncogenic retrovirus as it can replicate its oncogenes and can affect the growth and division of the infected host cells. Viral oncogenes, genetically called v-oncs are responsible for many different cancers. The v-oncs of RSV is called v-src. Unlike RNA tumour viruses, DNA tumour viruses do not carry oncogenes. Their mechanism for transforming cells is completely different. They transform normal cells to cancerous state through the action of genes present in the viral chromosome. DNA tumour viruses are found in five major families of DNA viruses which include: papovaviruses, pox viruses, hepatitis B viruses, herpes viruses and adenoviruses. After infection, the DNA tumour viruses produce a viral protein that activates DNA replication in the host cell. Then, utilizing host proteins, the viral genome is replicated and transformed. After producing large number of progeny viruses, they lyses the host cell and the viruses thus released can infect other cell. Rarely, the viral genome instead of replicating gets integrated into the host genome. Thereafter if the viral protein that activates DNA replication of the host cell is synthesized, this will lead to division and proliferation of the host cell converting normal cell to cancerous state. Basically, the cells move from G0 phase to the S phase of the cell cycle. The DNA viruses which induces cancers are papillomaviruses (HPV 16 and 18), human T-cell leukemia virus (HTLV-1), hepatitis B virus, human herpesvirus 8, and epstein-barr virus. Some of these viruses cause benign tumours such as skin and venereal warts in humans. Transformation is caused by the key viral genes, E6 and E7, which encode proteins that activate progression through the cell cycle. However, in most of the cases, virus infection alone is not sufficient to trigger human cancers. Other factors like DNA damage, accumulation of mutants in cell’s oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes, are required to induce cancer in multiple pathways. Some transducing retroviruses, their viral oncogenes, viral protein and type of cancer induced is presented in Table 13.1. CANCER AND GENOME STABILITY Cancer cells are characterized by the presence of chromosomal translocations, deletions, aneuploidy, and DNA amplification. Cultured cancer cells also show similar genomic instabilities. Study of the specific chromosomal defects can be used to diagnose the type and stage of the cancer. For example, chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) gene C-ABL from chromosome 9 is translocated to the chromosome 22 in the region of gene BCR. The fused ABL-BCR gene encodes for a chimeric ABL-BCR protein, which produces an abnormal signal transduction molecule that stimulates the CML cells to proliferate. The normal ABL protein (protein kinase) acts within signal transduction pathway, transferring growth factor signals from the external environment to the nucleus, thereby control cell division. Defect in the DNA repair genes can also induce cancer. For example, Xenoderma pigmentosum (XP), a disease in which the skin becomes extremely sensitive to UV light and other carcinogens. Patients with XP often develop skin cancer. Cells of XP are defective in nucleotide excision repair, with mutations appearing in any one of the seven genes whose products are required to carry out DNA repair. Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC) is also caused by mutations in genes controlling DNA repair. Patients affected by HNPCC have an increased risk of developing colon, ovary, uterine, and kidney cancers. At least eight genes are associated with HNPCC, and four of these genes (MSH2, MHS6, MLH1, and MLH3) control DNA mismatch repair. Mutations in any one of these genes can lead to development of cancer. EPIGENETICS AND CANCER Epigenetics includes those factors that affect heritable gene expression but do not alter the nucleotide sequence of DNA. Examples of epigenic modifications are DNA methylation, acetylation and phosphorylation of histones etc. Modifications caused through these processes can be inherited and affect gene expression. X-chromosome inactivation, heterochromatin gene expression are such examples. Cancer cells contain major alterations in DNA methylation. In general, there is much less DNA methylation in cancer cells compared to normal cells. On the other hand promoters of some genes are highly methylated in cancer cells. Apparently these changes lead to the release of transcription repression over the bulk of genes that would otherwise remain silent, while at the same time repressing transcription of genes that would normally regulate functions such as DNA repair, cell cycle, and cellular differentiation. The genes MLH1 and BRCA1, involved in DNA repair mechanism, are transcriptionally si lenced by hypermethylation in many cancer cells. Methylation profiles can be used to diagnose types of tumours and their possible course of development. It has also been observed that histones are also modified in the cancer cells. These modifications are due to mutations in the genes that encode histone acetylases, deacetylases, methyltransferases, and demethylases. Since the epigenetic modifications are reversible, epigenetic- based therapies may be useful for cancer treatments. APOPTOSIS AND CANCER If a normal cell encounters defective processing in DNA replication, DNA repair or chromosome assembly, they do not allowed to continue through the cell cycle, till the conditions are corrected and thereby reduces the chances of accumulation of defective cells. In case the damage of the DNA is irreparable, the cell may go through a second line of defence called programmed cell death or apoptosis. Apoptosis is controlled genetically, and is an inherent process to eliminate certain cells that are not required for by the final adult organism. In this process, the nuclear DNA becomes fragmented, internal cellular structures are disrupted, and cell dissolves into small spherical (apoptotic) bodies. Thereafter, these bodies are engulfed by the phagocytic cells of the immune system. The products of the genes Bcl2 and BAC can trigger or prevent apoptosis. In the cancer cells these genes are mutated, and as a result normal checkpoints in the cell cycle are inactivated. Such cells remain defec tive and cannot undergo apoptosis. TUMOUR SUPRESSOR GENES Henry Harris in late 1960’s observed that some cell lines, derived from the somatic hybrid of normal rodent cells and cancer cells, did not form tumours, instead established a normal growth pattern. He speculated that products of some genes present in the normal cells had the ability to suppress the uncontrolled proliferation of cancer cells. These genes are called tumour suppressor genes. Inactivation of tumour suppressor genes has been linked to the development of a wide variety of human cancer, including colon, lung and breast cancers. With the development of positional cloning technique, it has become possible to isolate tumour suppressor genes. In this technique, variations in the genetic characters present in the cancer cells and/or in cells of patients with inherited cancer predisposition are identified. Existence of variations indicate occurrence of mutations and help to study such mutations through cloning. Through this technique several tumour suppressor genes are identified in humans (Table 13.2). The p53 Tumour-Suppressor Gene In human cancer cells p53 is the most frequently mutated gene. The nuclear protein encodes by the gene p53 acts as a transcription factor. It can stimulate transcription or repress more than 50 different genes. Although the p53 protein is continuously synthesized, it is rapidly degraded and thus is present in low levels. When p53 protein binds to another protein called Mdm2, it induces degradation and sequesters the transcriptional activation domain of p53. It also prevents conversion of inactive p53 protein to active form. In case Mdm2 protein gets dissociated from p53 protein then rapid increase in the activated p53 protein takes place at nuclear level. Such dissociation is induced due to creation of dsDNA breaks, chemical damage in DNA and presence of DNA-repair intermediates. Increase in the level of p53 protein leads to increased protein phosphorylation, acetylation, and other post translational modifications. The products of p53 gene control the movement of the normal cells through different phases of the cell cycle. Activated p53 proteins can: i) stimulate transcription of p21 protein (which arrests progression from G1-S checkpoint of mitotic cycle), ii) regulate gene expression that retard replication of DNA (this helps in repair of the damaged DNA before replication), and iii) block damaged cells (DNA damage occurred during S phase) from progression from G2 to M checkpoint by regulating expression of other genes.

Elements of Romanticism in Stokers Dracula Essay -- essays research pa

During the Romantic Era, Bram Stoker created a timeless monster in his novel, Dracula. Stoker uses a series of letters and journal entries to tell the story form a first person point of view. The Count, for whom the book is named, seems to be invincible to mere man. Stoker uses his character of Dracula to reflect the elements of romanticism through his supernatural powers, a fascination with youth and innocence, and imagery. Dracula seems to possess unexplainable supernatural powers. When Jonathan Harker is traveling to castle Dracula, he is unaware that the driver of his coach is the Count himself. During the nocturnal journey, the coach is circled by wolves, not knowing what to do Jonathan calls for the coachman and in return â€Å"heard his [Dracula’s] voice raised in a tone of imperious command, and looking towards the sound saw him stand in the roadway. As he swept his long arm, as though brushing aside some impalpable obstacle, the wolves fell back and back further still† (23). This unnatural power over the wolves is Stoker’s first way of showing Dracula’s power over nature. Harker also describes in his journal that one evening â€Å"I saw the whole man slowly emerge from the window and begin to crawl down the castle wall over that dreadful abyss, face down with his cloak spreading out around him like great wings†¦ I saw the fingers and toes grasp the corners of th e stones†¦ and inequality move downwards with considerable speed, just as a lizard moves along a wall† (43). This tr...

Hiv Routes Of Transmission Health And Social Care Essay

Human immunodeficiency virus HIV is a lentivirus from retrovirus household that causes a HIV Infections in worlds which alters the immune system in a really terrible manner. HIV causes Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome ( AIDS ) at the last phase of the infection. The virus attacks immune system which makes people much weaker in contending against infections and assorted terrible diseases1. The chief focal point of this virus on human cells is to destruct the CD4 positive T Cells of the organic structure ‘s immune system. Destruction of CD4 positive T cells makes it worse for the immune system to contend against the infections, which allows life-threatening timeserving infections and more wellness jobs which may take to decease. Human immune system consists of of import cells which are being destroyed by HIV. This leads to moo CD4 count which in bend makes the human organic structure weak in contending against the infections2. HIV is found in the blood, chest milk, seeds and vaginal fluids of an septic individual. The virus is transmitted from one individual to another through blood to blood and sexual contact. HIV Infected individual ‘s Saliva with blood or any other organic structure fluids can be harmful and infective. HIV can be transmitted in different ways, such as sexual intercourse, blood transfusion, and besides contaminated subcutaneous acerate leafs. In the UK, the most common manner of acquiring HIV is by unprotected sexual intercourse with a individual who is HIV positive. It has shown in the UK statistics 2010 from the Health Protection Agency that 95 % of those diagnosed with HIV Positive due to sexual Contact. This shows that bulk in the UK get infected by HIV is through sexual intercourse which includes vaginal, anal and unwritten sex. This virus enters through the blood stream in different ways like lacerate tegument, oral cavity and eyes liners, and besides through the thin liner o f the anus and genitalias. HIV is non transmitted from an septic individual through caressing, caressing, ptyalizing, sharing bath towels or cutter, utilizing the same swimming pool and oral cavity to talk contact1. From the recent study, it has been shown that the following groups of people are at higher hazard of HIV infection which includes people who are shooting drugs, sex workers every bit Wellss as work forces holding sexual intercourse with men3. There are assorted methods to forestall HIV Transmission in our community through avoiding activities that leads you to dangerous jobs, such as unprotected sex and sharing septic acerate leafs and other assorted shooting equipments1, educating and reding people with HIV positive by the doctors and supplying them the best intervention so that to forestall HIV transmittal in general4. Current UK guidelines on HIV purpose to increase HIV proving in all health care sectors to diminish the sum of undiagnosed HIV infections. It is suggested that HIV trial should be offered to general populace in some sectors and besides to high hazard people in other different sectors ( for illustration, general pattern ) . The Department of wellness ( DH ) asked the National institute of wellness and clinical Excellence ( NICE ) to develop public wellness counsel to increase HIV proving between work forces who have sexual connexions with work forces to cut down undiagnosed infection and besides to forestall HIV transmittal. HIV Testing is one of the most of import factors which helps and guides the full community in UK through reduced HIV transmission5. Harmonizing to the statistics sing HIV, 6000 to 7000 people are diagnosed HIV Positive each twelvemonth in England. This is an of import factor to inquire the full community to concentrate and get the better of this job. Hence, encourage people to prosecute in different methods to forestall HIV transmittal and salvage the community in general with supplying proper consciousness sing HIV6. One of the most effectual ways to forestall HIV transmittal is through sex that is abstain from sex is the surest method to forestall HIV. If you decide to hold sex so acquire tested foremost to avoid HIV transmittal between you and your partner7. Use of rubber right in sexual activity is the most of import and advantageous point to halt the HIV spread and other infections which are sexually transmitted at every individual clip you have acute sex. Condoms are being marketed in different types of colors, forms, texture and spirits. Male rubbers are made up of latex or polyurethane and female rubbers are besides known as FC2, which is used for vaginal sex only7. Second, usage of merely water-based lubricators can increase sexual pleasance every bit good as safety, merely by adding wet to the vagina or anus during sexual intercourse. Lubricants decreases the hazard of vaginal or anal cryings which can be caused by waterlessness and besides it protects the rubber from rupturing off durin g sexual activity1. Third, usage of dental dike reduces hazard of sexually transmitted infections. It works as a wall between the oral cavity and vagina during unwritten sex. Fourthly, avoid utilizing septic acerate leafs, panpipes, or spoons which can expose you to HIV and other viruses which are found in the blood1. Pharmacological Prevention of HIV transmittal is through medical specialties and there are different methods used in forestalling its spread. Antiretroviral therapies ( ARTs ) are used to handle HIV, which prevents viral spread in the organic structure. A combination therapy of antiretroviral or extremely active antiretroviral therapy ( HAART ) is used for the effectual bar of HIV reproduction and transmittal in the organic structure. CD4 count and viral burden blood trial are two of import factors which help the physicians to make up one's mind on the intervention of that peculiar patient. Treatment is normally starts when the individuals CD4 counts shows below 350, irrespective of their presence or absence of their symptoms1. Harmonizing to WHO guidelines, it states that ART inductions are really good in forestalling HIV every bit good as clinically, they are more powerful in handling HIV positive patients, when the CD4 count is less than 350 cells/mm3. Viral burden plays the major function in HIV transmittal as it is one of the highest hazard factor in this scenario. When the viral burden is less than 1500 copies/mm3, the hazard of conveying HIV is about nothing as suggested by recent surveies. Evidence shows that the viral burden degrees are decreased by ART, hence bounds HIV transmittal depending on individual ‘s HIV position. WHO guidelines shows that they are chiefly engaged on extinguishing HIV and they strongly suggest that the usage of ART protects the full community which besides includes kids and pregnant adult females by handling and forestalling them from the spread of HIV8. There are different groups of ART medicines to forestall and handle HIV infection1. Virus attaches to the host cel l whereby it fuses with the host cell membrane. After the incursion into the host cell, the outer coat of the virus is removed and familial stuff and an enzyme released into the host cell, which is called rearward RNA polymerase, which converts viral RNA to viral DNA, so viral DNA penetrates to the host cell nucleus where by two procedure takes topographic point which includes written text and interlingual rendition takes topographic point which leads to bring forth new virions through peptidase enzyme2. Different antiretroviral medical specialties holding different mark but with one purpose, that is to suppress viral reproduction. Rearward RNA polymerase inhibitors are of two types that includes nucleoside contrary RNA polymerase inhibitors and non-nucleoside contrary RNA polymerase inhibitors. NRTIs are defective constructing blocks of Deoxyribonucleic acid when they are incorporated into HIV DNA, hence blocks the viral reproduction procedure, by non finishing the Deoxyribonucleic acid Chain. NNRTs bind to the enzyme contrary RNA polymerase and suppress the procedure of viral replication2. NNRTs are used in the intervention or HIV-1 but it is seldom used for HIV-2 in the UK9. Protease Inhibitors are inhibits the procedure of production of viral stuff through interfering with the peptidase enzyme. In the UK, Protease Inhibitors are Entry Inhibitors are inhibitors involved in barricading the virus to adhere with the host cellular membrane that lead to the obstruction of virus into the host cell. Integrase inhibitors are involved in barricading the procedure of integrating of viral familial stuff into the Host D NA by suppressing integrase enzyme. Microbicides are chemical and pharmacologic substances that are used for destructing some micro-organisms that cause terrible jobs to worlds. Many compounds are being produced and tested their effectivity against microbicidal activity in clinical tests. These merchandises are being produced for vaginal every bit good as rectal applications to protect from HIV infections and other sexually transmitted diseases. Presently, scientists are working on this undertaking in developing microbicides for forestalling HIV transmittals and heighten the degree of patient safety12. Post-exposure prophylaxis ( PEP ) is ARTs used after the exposure like occupational injuries10 or sexual exposure11 to forestall HIV infection. PEP medicines are non yet proved every bit good as unlicensed in the UK. They are merely supported by experimenting on animate beings. Besides, there are ongoing surveies for pre-exposure prophylaxis where it includes antiretroviral drugs before the exposure to HIV2. Another preventative step against HIV is through Vaccination procedure. Presently, HIV Vaccine is non available but it is one of the on-going research at a really early phase to bring forth effectual HIV Vaccine into the market so that to protect the full community against HIV infection. Since 1990, surveies have shown that the HIV spread from female parent to kid has been increased every twelvemonth. The Department of Health policy proposing that an HIV Test to be carried out in each and every pregnant adult females and has shown that it has addition consciousness in adult females prior to bringing and it has shown that more than 80 % of the adult females are cognizant in London, 2001 every bit good as it has reduced the figure of babies being infected in the UK13. Antiretroviral interventions ( ART ) are being used in gestation to forestall HIV transmittal from female parent to child. It is suggested that if you are HIV Positive so do non breast feed your kid, as virus transmittal can happen through chest milk1. Overall guidelines and counsel of antiretroviral therapy are being provided to forestall transmittal of HIV from female parent to child14. Pre-exposure prophylaxis ( PrEP ) in HIV protects healthy people from HIV infection. Current surveies and clinical tests are in the procedure of developing of PrEP to forestall transmittal of HIV. Surveies have shown a lessenings hazard of HIV infection among animate beings that are exposed to ARVs. PrEP has shown its effectivity in â€Å" humanized † research lab mice in the survey which was conducted in 200715 and besides, ARVs are given to female parents and babies to cut down HIV transimmsion16. The PrEP research surveies uses the drug called tenofovir that is delivered by unwritten path or topical path. It has shown in the four clinical tests that it reduces the hazard of acquiring HIV infection but in the two tests have shown no good response. As of today, there are two on-going surveies that have non yet published their findings on the consequence of HIV transimmision. There are many challenges in relation to safety and effectivity of PrEP inventions. Besides combinatio ns pill called TruvadaA ® ( Tenofovir and Emtricitabine ) which was accepted by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) for the intent in HIV intervention in 2004. Truvada, as a PrEP was approved by the FDA in July, 2012 for forestalling from HIV transmittal. Powerful research grounds shows that the PrEP is safe and effectual when used systematically for diminishing the hazard of acquiring HIV sexually17. In Conclusion, it can be said that there are different paths of HIV transmittal and besides several methods are available to forestall its transmittal. Currently, many surveies are â€Å" traveling on † to develop new merchandises to forestall and handle HIV patients efficaciously with decreased hazard involved. Besides, public consciousness play a immense function in HIV bar by educating them through assorted resources like chew the fating with them or telephone conversations or supplying proper information on HIV transmittal with its badness. Harmonizing to the recent results of HIV transmittal in the UK, there are assorted factors must be followed by the general populace so that cut down the figure of people by acquiring infected through acquiring sex instruction, attachment to medicines and to avoid unprotected sex or work forces to work forces sex. This can take to healthy long life of our patients and diminish the figure of morbidity and mortality. Centres for Disease co ntrol and Prevention stated that about 50,000 people are freshly infected with HIV in the United States each year.18 From the estimations it shows that HIV is one of the terrible issue in our community which can take to decease as it is easy transmitted. Hence, Prevention of HIV transmittal is the most good factor to salvage our community with development of new merchandises which have different pharmacological marks to avoid opposition of the Drug.